What Was the Umayyad Caliphate

What Was the Umayyad Caliphate The Umayyad Caliphate was the second of four Islamic caliphates and was founded in Arabia after the Prophet Muhammads death. The Umayyads ruled the Islamic world from 661 to 750 C.E. Their capital was in the city of Damascus; the founder of the caliphate, Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, had long been the governor of Syria. Originally from Mecca, Muawiya named his dynasty the Sons of Umayya after a common ancestor he shared with the Prophet Muhammad. The Umayyad family had been one of the major combatant clans in the Battle of Badr (624 CE), the decisive battle between Muhammad and his followers on the one hand, and the powerful clans of Mecca on the other. Muawiya triumphed over Ali, the fourth caliph, and Muhammads son-in-law, in 661, and officially founded the new caliphate. The Umayyad Caliphate became one of the major political, cultural, and scientific centers of the early medieval world.    The Umayyads also began the process of spreading Islam throughout Asia, Africa, and Europe. They moved into Persia and Central Asia, converting the rulers of key Silk Road oasis cities such as Merv and Sistan.   They also invaded what is now Pakistan, beginning the process of conversion in that area that would continue for centuries. Umayyad troops also crossed Egypt and brought Islam to the Mediterranean coast of Africa, from whence it would disperse south across the Sahara along caravan routes until much of West Africa became Muslim. Finally, the Umayyads waged a series of wars against the Byzantine Empire based in what is now Istanbul. They sought to overthrow this Christian empire in Anatolia and convert the region to Islam; Anatolia would eventually convert, but not for several centuries after the collapse of the Umayyad Dynasty in Asia. Between 685 and 705 CE, the Umayyad Caliphate reached its apex of power and prestige. Its armies conquered areas from Spain the west to Sindh in what is now India. One after another, additional Central Asian cities fell to the Muslim armies - Bukhara, Samarkand, Khwarezm, Tashkent, and Fergana. This rapidly expanding empire had a postal system, a form of banking based on credit, and some of the most beautiful architecture ever seen. Just when it seemed that the Umayyads truly were poised to rule the world, however, disaster struck. In 717 CE, the Byzantine emperor Leo III led his army to a crushing victory over the Umayyad forces, which had been besieging Constantinople. After 12 months trying to break through the citys defenses, the hungry and exhausted Umayyads had to retreat empty-handed back to Syria. A new caliph, Umar II, tried to reform the financial system of the caliphate by increasing the taxes on Arab Muslims to the same level as taxes on all other non-Arab Muslims. This caused a huge outcry among the Arab faithful, of course, and caused a financial crisis when they refused to pay any taxes at all. Finally, renewed feuding broke out among the various Arab tribes around this time, leaving the Umayyad system tottering. It managed to press on for a few more decades. Umayyad armies got as far into western Europe as France by 732, where they were turned back at the Battle of Tours. In 740, the Byzantines dealt the Umayyads another shattering blow, driving all Arabs from Anatolia. Five years later, the simmering feuds between the Qays and Kalb tribes of Arabs erupted into full-scale war in Syria and Iraq. In 749, religious leaders proclaimed a new caliph, Abu al-Abbas al-Saffah, who became the founder of the  Abbasid Caliphate. Under the new caliph, members of the old ruling family were hunted down and executed. One survivor, Abd-ar-Rahman, escaped to Al-Andalus (Spain), where he founded the Emirate (and later Caliphate) of Cordoba. The Umayyad caliphate in Spain survived until 1031.

How to End a Story 3 Secrets to Writing a Captivating Ending

How to End a Story 3 Secrets to Writing a Captivating Ending How to End a Story: 3 Secrets to Writing a Captivating Ending Novel ideasare a dime a dozen. Ask any agent, publisher, editor, or movie producer. It’s true. Everybody’s got one, maybe more than one. Even you, am I right? Of my nearly 190 published books, more than two-thirds have been novels that started as ideas, so I know what most everybody in the business knows: The idea is the easy part. Want to know what’s second easiest? Starting. I know. That one surprises you, because maybe you’re stuck. You’ve been sitting on your great idea, idling in neutral for too long. So what’s keeping you from getting going? Fear. But fear of what? Two things: The marathon of the middle- which is a topic for another day (it’s that tough, for me too, and that important) And coming up with an ending that does justice to that great idea of yours That’s why publishers rarely hand out contracts and advances to first time novelists before they see entire manuscripts. You may have the best novel idea since Chicken Soup for the Left Behind Amish Vampire. But until you prove you can finish- and I mean close that curtain with a resounding thud- all you’re getting from publishers is Fifty Shades of Wait and See. So how do you ensure your story doesn’t fizzle when it should be delivering a thrill? Need help writing your novel?Click here to download my ultimate 12-step guide. 1. Keep the End in Sight the Whole Way Don’t play the wishing game, hoping it will simply work itself out when the time comes. Whether you’re a meticulous outliner or write by the seat of your pants, have an idea where your story is going and think about your ending every day. How you expect the story to end should inform every scene, every chapter. It may change, evolve, grow as you and your characters experience the inevitable arcs, but never leave it to chance. And if you get near the end and worry something’s missing, that the punch isn’t there or that it doesn’t live up to the power of the other elements of your book, don’t rush it. Give it a few days, a few weeks if necessary. Read through everything you’ve written. Take a long walk. Think on it. Sleep on it. Jot notes about it. Let your subconscious work on it. Play what-if games. Be outrageous if you must. Force that ending to sing. Make it unforgettable. Musts Be generous with your readers. They have invested in you and your work the entire way. Give them a proper payoff. Don’t allow it to look rushed by not allowing it berushed. Make it unpredictable but fair. You want readers to feel they should have seen it coming- because you planted enough hints- but not feel hoodwinked. Never settle. If you’re not happy with every word, scuttle it until you are. If you have too many ideas for how it should end, don’t despair. Just make yourself find the best one. When in doubt, go not for the cleverest or most cerebral. Readers long to be moved. Go for the heart. Rewrite it until it shines. I’ve long been on record that all writing is rewriting, and this is never more true than at the end of your novel. When do you know it’s been rewritten enough? When you’ve gone from making it better to merely making it different. 2. Nothing Can Follow the End This goes without saying. But I say it anyway, why? Because too many beginners think it appears sophisticated to leave things nebulous, or they want to save something crucial for the Epilogue. Avoid that mistake. Modern readers raised on television and movies like chronology- beginnings, middles, ends. They expect the end to do its job. Artsy types may think it hip to just stop and enjoy gassing on talk shows about how life isn’t so tidy. Well, terrific. I’ve seen enough movies like that, and I can tell you that most people don’t like sitting there shaking their heads as the lights come up. They scowl at each other and say, â€Å"Really? That’s it? We’re to wonder what happens now?† All that does for me as a novelist is to remind me that I have one job, and I recommit myself to doing it again every time. Invent a story world for my readers and deliver a satisfying experience for them. They have invested their time and money, believing I will uphold my end of the bargain- and that means a beginning, a middle, and an end. One that satisfies. That doesn’t mean every ending is happily-ever-after, everything tied in a neat bow. But the reader knows what happened, questions are answered, things are resolved, puzzles are solved. And because I happen to have a worldview of hope, my work will reflect that. If you write from another worldview, at least be consistent. End your stories with how you see life, but don’t just stop. That said, some stories end too neatly and then appear contrived. If they end too late, you’ve asked your reader to indulge you for too long. Be judicious. In the same way you decide when to enter and leave a scene, carefully determine when to exit your novel. 3. Don’t Forget Your Hero This may seem obvious, but I’ve seen it violated. Your lead character should be center stage at the end. Everything he learned throughout all the complications that arose from his trying to fix the terrible trouble you plunged him into should by now have made him the person who rises to the occasion. Maybe to this point he has been flawed, weak, defeated. But his character arc is about to resolve and become complete. The action must happen on stage, not just be about or remembered or simply narrated. It can’t be resolved by a miracle or because he realizes something. He must act. That’s what makes a reader respond emotionally, and if it moves you when you write it, it will move your readers exponentially. See yourself as the captain of a mighty airline. You’ve taken your readers on a long, eventful journey. Now bring it in for a landing. Need help writing your novel?Click here to download my ultimate 12-step guide. What will you do to ensure a great ending to your novel?

Nature or nurture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Nature or nurture - Essay Example This at least seem possible conclusions that may be drawn from the work of Michael Kimmel, a sociologist, teaching at the University of New York at Stony Brook. Apart from having written on gender in general and men in particular, he has also produced numerous books and journal articles that deal specifically with the issues of masculinity, particularly that of teenage boys and young men under the age of 30. In a recent book (2008), Kimmel discusses the ‘code of masculinity’ these young men are socialized into, usually from an age earlier than even puberty, and the fear that is created by enforcement tactics used by others around them to ensure that the socialization process is successful. It is not only Kimmel but also others like Kindlon and Thompson (qtd. In Kimmel 2008) who point out that young men are not comfortable with the denial of personal needs and with living in emotional isolation. The cruel treatment they suffer at the hands of their peers leaves them beref t and is the reason for many teenage suicides. The fact that so many young boys and men appear to be extremely ill at ease with ‘wearing the mask of masculinity’ (Pollack qtd. ... nowledges the recent pre-occupation with biology in the area of human identity, and the apparent demise of theories of gender as a social construct, she also points to the fact that the difficulties so-called ‘transgender’ children experience, appear to have been exacerbated by parental indulgence. These children take on role-playing at a very early age – usually the role of the opposite sex – and persist with it, without a sign of change in sight. In A Boy’s Life (November 2008) Rosin maps the options that are open to these children and how their parents agonize over choices they are ill equipped to make. Both Rosin and Kimmel offer a disturbing view of the motivation of peers, parents, communities and professionals, those involved in the negotiation of gender and identity, and how a mix of fear of rejection, a need for normalcy and peer approval, parental weakness and professional ambition can lead to a single-minded homing in on only those solutio ns that serve these purposes. As Kimmel points out, it is not surprising that a system that is held together by fear and constant peer affirmation should selectively look to nature and nurture to justify itself. Like many other ambiguous intellectual constructs, it uses contradictory justifications. Thus, masculinity is described to be the result of evolutionary and chemical processes – biologically determined, unalterable and unassailable (614). It would appear that men come into the world, fully ‘wired’ for masculinity. This is indeed biology at work. Yet, curiously, it is vulnerable. It must be re-enforced by toughening up or it is in danger of lapsing. As Kimmel points out, if it is indeed hard-wired, nothing whatsoever would need to be done to preserve it. But that is clearly not the case, otherwise men

Audience Analysis and Adaptation Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Audience Analysis and Adaptation - Assignment Example However, Mrs Bush shares her experience of coming to Wellesley 10 years back. She identifies with the students by describing how she was struck by the natural beauty of the campus and then tells a story about Wellesley students where she stresses on the spirit of the college. This way she relates with the students. She very wisely talks about human connections and their importance in our lives. She addresses the concerns of the audience by speaking about the success of a family and loving children. Mrs Bush says that she wishes the winner of the annual hoop race to realize her own dreams – not society’s dream – and not just be the first to get married or the first to become a CEO. By speaking in their interest and addressing the issues related to their lives, she defuses the hostility they held against her. If Mrs Bush would have been delivering the speech at some other higher education institute, she would have probably not have stressed too much about her personal life. She would have interacted more with the students so as to relate with them. Infact, she would have highlighted the achievements of the institute and spoken about how she would have loved to be a part of the institute. She would have spoken more about the issues related to nation and society so as to draw their

Virtual Reality - What It Is And How It Works :: essays research papers

Virtual Reality - What it is and How it Works Imagine being able to point into the sky and fly. Or perhaps walk through space and connect molecules together. These are some of the dreams that have come with the invention of virtual reality. With the introduction of computers, numerous applications have been enhanced or created. The newest technology that is being tapped is that of artificial reality, or "virtual reality" (VR). When Morton Heilig first got a patent for his "Sensorama Simulator" in 1962, he had no idea that 30 years later people would still be trying to simulate reality and that they would be doing it so effectively. Jaron Lanier first coined the phrase "virtual reality" around 1989, and it has stuck ever since. Unfortunately, this catchy name has caused people to dream up incredible uses for this technology including using it as a sort of drug. This became evident when, among other people, Timothy Leary became interested in VR. This has also worried some of the researchers who are trying to create very real applications for medical, space, physical, chemical, and entertainment uses among other things. In order to create this alternate reality, however, you need to find ways to create the illusion of reality with a piece of machinery known as the computer. This is done with several computer-user interfaces used to simulate the senses. Among these, are stereoscopic glasses to make the simulated world look real, a 3D auditory display to give depth to sound, sensor lined gloves to simulate tactile feedback, and head-trackers to follow the orientation of the head. Since the technology is fairly young, these interfaces have not been perfected, making for a somewhat cartoonish simulated reality. Stereoscopic vision is probably the most important feature of VR because in real life, people rely mainly on vision to get places and do things. The eyes are approximately 6.5 centimeters apart, and allow you to have a full-colour, three-dimensional view of the world. Stereoscopy, in itself, is not a very new idea, but the new twist is trying to generate completely new images in real- time. In 1933, Sir Charles Wheatstone invented the first stereoscope with the same basic principle being used in today's head-mounted displays. Presenting different views to each eye gives the illusion of three dimensions. The glasses that are used today work by using what is called an "electronic shutter". The lenses of the glasses interleave inflating air bladders in a glove, arrays of tiny pins moved by shape memory wires, and even fingertip piezoelectric vibrotactile actuators. The latter method uses tiny crystals that vibrate when

Why John a Macdonald Is Consider One of the Greaters Prime Minister

The greatest prime minister in Canada Introduction †¢After 143 of Canada been created by the father of confederation, it can be realize that nothing of this would have happen if it was for the persistence of Prime Minister John A. Macdonald †¢Three British colonies were formed into four Canadian provinces. The British Province of Canada was divided into the new Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec, and two other British colonies, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, also became provinces of Canada. Promise to connect west with east and in today’s environment that connection is still and icon in Canadians †¢Convince one important person in Nova Scotia so that this province would not retired from the confederation †¢Server 2 term in †¢He is consider one of the father or confederation †¢Second longest prime minister in Canada history†¢Only prime minister with six majority governments †¢won praise for having helped forge a nation of sprawling geographic size, with two diverse European colonial origins, numerous Aboriginal nations, and a multiplicity of cultural backgrounds and political views Thesis Sir John A. Macdonald, Canada’s greatest Prime Minister was responsible for the founding of Canada and work hard to make this nation stable and prosperous The greatest prime minister in Canada Introduction †¢After 143 of Canada been created by the father of confederation, it can be realize that nothing of this would have happen if it was for the persistence of Prime Minister John A. Macdonald †¢Three British colonies were formed into four Canadian provinces.The British Province of Canada was divided into the new Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec, and two other British colonies, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, also became provinces of Canada. †¢Promise to connect west with east and in today’s environment that connection is still and icon in Canadians †¢Convince one important person in No va Scotia so that this province would not retired from the confederation †¢Server 2 term in †¢He is consider one of the father or confederation Second longest prime minister in Canada history †¢Only prime minister with six majority governments †¢won praise for having helped forge a nation of sprawling geographic size, with two diverse European colonial origins, numerous Aboriginal nations, and a multiplicity of cultural backgrounds and political views Thesis †¢Sir John A. Macdonald, Canada’s greatest Prime Minister was responsible for the founding of Canada and work hard to make this nation stable and prosperous

Tips for How to Prepare for an Oral Exam

Oral exams⠁  Ã¢â‚¬â€tests during which teachers ask students to answer exam questions aloud⠁  Ã¢â‚¬â€can be undoubtedly stressful, but there are a number of ways to prepare for nontraditional testing or reporting methods like this. Though oral exams are most common for language learners, they are increasingly prevalent across other subjects because they allow teachers to cater syllabuses to students with a variety of  learning styles. Key Takeaways Stay positive during your exam preparations.Oral exams can be stressful, but they are valuable practice for potential future interviews.Know your subject better than you think you need, and practice using movement intentionally to emphasize your main points.Don’t forget to eat well, sleep enough, and drink plenty of water leading up to your exam. Exercise can also help release nervous energy.Take your time answering questions during your exam, and don’t be afraid to ask for help if you need it!   Stay Positive Instead of psyching yourself out about what could possibly go wrong, remind yourself how much you have learned and what you have the chance to share with your teacher. An optimistic outlook can banish nerves and bring excitement to any exam. Even if you prefer traditional pen-and-paper tests, oral exams can help you succeed beyond the classroom. They provide you with valuable interview-like experience to prepare you to smash your future educational and career goals. Here are a few tips and tricks to help you prepare for your next oral exam.   Know Your Subject Successfully completing an oral exam starts with knowing the material you will be discussing. The best part about these kinds of tests is that you already have all the answers. Teachers won’t ask you anything you haven’t been taught, so you will only need to discuss the material that has been presented to you in lectures, text, and video. With that being said, there are a few things that will ease some of the pressure of reciting this learned material.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Dig Deeper The best way to start preparing for an oral exam is to take a personal interest in the material. Knowing more about your topic than what is mandatory will help you predict questions that your teacher might ask. It will also give you more to talk about. Learn the background story of historical figures, authors, scientists, and explorers, even if you don’t think you need to. Many of the world’s greatest mathematical and scientific discoveries were only made because of something that happened in the discoverer’s personal life. Did you know that Darwin was going to turn down his trip to the Galapagos because his father disapproved? The person we have to thank for On the Origin of Species is Darwin’s uncle (and father-in-law) who firmly believed Darwin’s discoveries would provide evidence to support Biblical claims. Not only does digging deeper give you a better understanding of your topic, but you also have more content to talk about. If you if fully understand the ins and out of your subject, you won’t ever run out of things to say.   Predict Questions Now that you know your subject, you can begin to contemplate what your teacher might ask you. The best place to start is with the material you already have. Use previous quizzes and exams, essay prompts, and even the questions at the end of chapters to help you formulate answers. It will also be helpful for you to understand the general theme and purpose of your exam. Knowing the purpose of your exam–the topic on which you are being tested–makes crafting answers easier because you have a goal in mind. For example, if your geography teacher asks you how the climate and geographical feature affected the U.S. troops in Vietnam, you know that your answer should be built off of mountains, rivers, and weather patterns more than the success or failure of the troops because the exam is about geography. Similarly, your French teacher may ask you about a film you recently saw, but the content of the film doesn’t matter as much as your ability to conjugate verbs and use the past tense. When predicting questions, remember that one question can best be asked a hundred different ways. Words like outline, describe, and detail are different ways of saying â€Å"tell me about†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Be prepared for these trigger words by asking yourself the same question a few different ways. â€Å"Chunk† Your Content When crafting your answers, try to â€Å"chunk† or group bits of information together rather than trying to remember everything as a whole. Think about the way a book is written–not as one massive piece of text, but a story divided into digestible bits with a common thread that ties them all together. Turn your exam into a story so when your teacher asks you about the economic climate of Thailand after colonization, you can follow your thread through your story without being overwhelmed, and you can easily recall and answer confidently that Thailand was never technically colonized. Use Intentional Movements It is perfectly normal to move around when you are nervous–to fidget with your clothes, to not sit still, to pace back and forth–because movement is a way to release some of that nervous energy, but it can detract from what you are saying because your exam administrator is more focused on your actions. In order to combat distraction while still releasing nervous energy, practice intentional movements. Watch Yourself The best and easiest way to practice is to first know how you move. Sit or stand in front of a mirror or use a camera or a cell phone to you can record and re-watch yourself answering questions. Don’t think too much about how you should or shouldn’t move; this is just a self-assessment. Once you understand how you tend to release nervous energy, you can take the appropriate steps to make your movements more intentional and useful for your exam. Watch Others The greatest presenters and speakers in the world aren’t those who sit or stand completely still, but rather those who use movement and nonverbal communication to emphasize what they are saying. For example, speakers will often take three or four long strides toward the audience to emphasize the importance of what they are saying. They use hand gestures and facial expressions that add to the significance of understanding of a topic. Before your oral exam, take some time to watch other speakers and presenters. This can be as simple as watching TED Talks on YouTube. Note how speakers sit, stand, or walk, how they gesture, and how they answer questions. Develop Intentional Movement Practice answering questions using movements and nonverbal communication that you have observed. Lay newspaper on the floor or under your seat to make you more conscious of your movements. If you can’t seem to steady your hands, hold on to a paperclip during your exam. Remember, moving to release nervous energy is perfectly normal, and the most important focus for your oral exam is the content, not your gestures. Physical and Mental Wellness You might have spent days, weeks, or even months preparing for your exam, but if you drink too much coffee or don’t get enough sleep, all that preparation could be in vain. Remember that taking care of yourself, both physically and mentally, is reflected in your capabilities and how you perform. Take care of your mind and body, and in turn, they will take care of you.   Nutrition In the days leading up to your exam, drink enough water (aim for eight large glasses every day), get enough sleep (adults need no less than seven hours of sleep per night), and eat whole, healthy foods. On the morning of the exam, eat a light, energizing breakfast, and limit your caffeine intake. You don’t need any extra jitters!   Exercise Remember that nervous energy we talked about earlier? It is caused by cortisol, the stress hormone. Increasing your heart rate eliminates cortisol. If you can, try to get to the gym in the days leading up to your exam.   Presentation There is something to be said about the clichà ©, dress well, test well. Pick out your clothes the night before so you don’t have to fumble through your closet in the morning. Wear something comfortable and breathable that you won’t need to tug at during your exam.   Take Your Time Teachers firing questions at you can feel overwhelming, but remember that there is no need to rush into your answers. Take a moment after each question to digest what information has just been requested from you and organize your thoughts accordingly. If your teacher asks you to describe Christopher Columbus’s voyage to the Americas, take a moment to recall what you know about Columbus. You know how the voyage was funded, you know the names of the ships, you know how long the journey took because you prepared for the exam. Now that your thoughts are in order, begin to tell your teacher the story of the legendary voyage across the sea.   Ask For Help Your teachers and professors want you to succeed. They are there to help you reach your goals and prepare you for future career endeavors. Visit them before or after school, during breaks, at lunch, or during office hours. Meet with them if you are confused or stuck or you simply want to talk through an idea. Teachers are also normally the ones administering the oral exams, meaning they have created the criteria you need to meet to be successful. They are your most valuable resources and your strongest allies.